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|familycolor=Indo-European
|states=India
|region=South Asia
|speakers=480 million native, 800 million total
|rank=2
|fam2=Indo-Iranian
|fam3=Indo-Aryan
|script=Devanagari script
|nation=India (the Union government)
|agency=Central Hindi Directorate http://hindinideshalaya.nic.in/hindi/indexhindi.html
|iso1=hi|iso2=hin|iso3=hin|notice=Indic}}

Hindi (हिन्दी or हिंदी in Devanāgarī; pronunciation: ), an Indo-European language spoken mainly in northern and central India, is the primary official language of the Union government of India. It is part of a dialect continuum of the Indic family, bounded on the northwest and west by Punjabi, Sindhi, Urdu, and Gujarati; on the south by Marathi; on the southeast by Oriya; on the east by Bengali; and on the north by Nepali.

Hindi also refers to a standardized register of Hindustani termed khari boli, that emerged as the standard dialect of Hindi. The grammatical description in this article concerns this standard Hindi.

Hindi is often contrasted with Urdu, another standardized form of Hindustani that is the official language of Pakistan and also an official language in some parts of India. The primary differences between the two are that Standard Hindi is written in Devanagari and draws its vocabulary with words from Sanskrit, while Urdu is written in Nastaliq script, a variant of the Perso-Arabic script, and draws heavily on Persian and Arabic vocabulary. The term "Urdu" also includes dialects of Hindustani other than the standardized languages. Other than these, linguists consider Hindi and Urdu to be the same language.

Classification

Hindi is classified as a language belonging to the Indo-European family of languages. It comes under the Indo-Aryan division of the Indo-Iranian branch of that family of languages.

Demographics

Area

250px script (a prayer to a Hindu deity)]]Hindi is the predominant language in the states and union territories of Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Uttaranchal, Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Chattisgarh. Linguistic scholars refer to this area as Hindi belt. Outside these areas, Hindi is widely spoken in cities like Mumbai, Chandigarh, Ahmedabad, Kolkata, and Hyderabad, all of which have their own native languages but harbour large communities of people from various parts of India.

Local variations of Hindi are counted as minority languages in several countries, including Fiji, Mauritius, Guyana, Suriname, South Africa and Trinidad and Tobago.

Number of speakers

Hindi is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world, due to the large population of India. According to the 1991 census of IndiaCensus of India (which encompasses all the dialects of Hindi, including those that might be considered separate languages by some linguists—e.g., Bhojpuri), Hindi is the mother tongue of about 337 million Indians, or about 40% of India's population that year. According to SIL International's EthnologueSIL International's report on Hindi in its Ethnologue , about 180 million people in India regard standard (Khari Boli) Hindi as their mother tongue, and another 300 million use it as a second language. Outside India, Hindi speakers number around 8 million in Nepal, 890,000 in South Africa, 685,000 in Mauritius, 317,000 in the U.S.http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-29.pdf , 233,000 in Yemen, 147,000 in Uganda, 30,000 in Germany, 20,000 in New Zealand and 5,000 in Singapore, while the UK and UAE also have notable populations of Hindi speakers. Hence, according to the SIL ethnologue (1999 data), Hindi/Urdu is the fifth most spoken language in the world. According to Comrie (1998 data)http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm, Hindi-Urdu is the second most spoken language in the world, with 333 million native speakers.

Because of Hindi's extreme similarity to Urdu, speakers of the two languages can usually understand one another, if both sides refrain from using specialized vocabulary. Indeed, linguists sometimes count them as being part of the same language diasystem. However, Hindi and Urdu are socio-politically different, and people who self-describe as being speakers of Urdu would question their being counted as native speakers of Hindi, and vice-versa.

Official and social status

A general belief prevails that Hindi is the national language of India, but this argument is hotly contested by many non-Hindi speakers. In fact, the eighth schedule of the Indian constitution lists a number of languages recognised as being "Official languages" for the purpose of communication between the Union and the speakers of those states, and none as any national language.

Official status

The Constitution of India, adopted in 1950, declares Hindi in the Devanagari script the "official language (rājabhāshā) of the Union" (Art. 343(1)). It was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the central government by 1965, with state governments being free to function in languages of their own choice. This has not, however, happened de facto, although de jure, Hindi is the first official language of the Union. There was widespread resistance to the alleged imposition of Hindi on non-native speakers, in some states, especially the Anti-Hindi agitations in the state of Tamil Nadu, which resulted in the passage of the Official Languages Act (1963). This act provided for the continued use of English, indefinitely, for all official purposes, by the Union government, thus making English the associate official language of the Union. However, the constituitonal directive to the central government to champion the spread of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced the policies of the Union government.

At the state level, Hindi is the official language of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttaranchal, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, and Delhi. Each of these states may also designate a "co-official language" (usually Urdu in these states). Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of co-official language in several states.

Social status

While the central government has sedulously promoted the spread of Hindi, its official status is not reflected in social importance. As with other south Asian language groups, even native speakers of Hindi, if elite, are usually facile in English. Education in English is a prerequisite for social status—hence the existence of several English medium "public" (actually private) and Christian missionary schools in India. English remains the sole language of higher education in almost every field of learning except Hindi literature itself.

Since the elite can use English, Hindi has been particularly weak on the Internet. As a barometer, the Devanagari fonts and keyboards used on computers today were not standardized within India - earlier government standards such as the 8-bit ISCII (Indian Script Code for Information Interchange) or the GIST keyboard were never widely adopted. The present system was finally standardized only during Unicode deliberations. Indeed, Hindi unicode standards were finalised based on inputs from scholars hailing from Fiji and other countries. It is only when Unicode became the dominant standard that a number of changes were sought by the Indian government.

At the informal level (as between friends, colleagues and co-workers, and in entertainment, films, etc.), the use of Hindi has been growing, even among non-native speakers. Hindi is often used if the speakers in question hail from different linguistic provinces, especially if they belong to a social stratum that has not accessed a very good English education, and often even otherwise. Hindi movies have been playing a substantial role in popularizing the language all over the country. Popular Hindi TV serials do the same today. Seeing the popularity of Hindi, BBC World Service started News in Hindi in 1940.

History

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Hindi evolved from Sanskrit, by way of the Middle Indo-Aryan Prakrit languages and Apabhramsha of the Middle Ages. There is no consensus for a specific time where the modern north Indian languages such as Hindi emerged, but c. 1,000 AD is commonly accepted.Shapiro, M: Hindi. Over nearly a thousand years of Muslim influence such as when Muslim rulers controlled much of northern India during the Mughal Empire, many Persian and Arabic words were borrowed into Hindi.

Standard Hindi

After independence, the Government of India worked on standardizing Hindi, instituting the following changes:
*standardization of Hindi grammar: In 1954, the Government of India set up a committee to prepare a grammar of Hindi; The committee's report was released in 1958 as "A Basic Grammar of Modern Hindi"
*standardization of Hindi spelling
*standardization of the Devanagari (Devanāgarī) script by the Central Hindi Directorate of the Ministry of Education and Culture to bring about uniformity in writing and to improve the shape of some Devanagari characters.
*scientific mode of transcribing the Devanagari alphabet
*incorporation of diacritics to express sounds from other languages.

Vocabulary

Main article: Hindustānī (Hindī-Urdū) word etymology

Standard Hindi derives much of its formal and technical vocabulary from Sanskrit. Standard or shuddha ("pure") Hindi is used only in public addresses and radio or TV news, while the everyday spoken language in most areas is one of several varieties of Hindustani, whose vocabulary contains words drawn from Persian and Arabic. In addition, spoken Hindi includes words from English and other languages as well.

Vernacular Urdu and Hindi are practically indistinguishable. However, the literary registers differ substantially; in highly formal situations, the languages are barely intelligible to speakers of the other. It bears mention that in centuries past both Sanskrit and Persian have been regarded as the languages of the elite, even by those of differing ethnic and religious backgrounds.

There are two principal categories of words in Standard Hindi:
*Tatsam (तत्सम्) words: These are the words which have been directly lifted from Sanskrit to enrich the formal and technical vocabulary of Hindi. Such words (almost exclusively nouns) have been taken without any phonetic or spelling change. Among nouns, the tatsam word could be the Sanskrit uninflected word-stem, or it could be the nominative singular form in the Sanskrit nominal declension.
*Tadbhav (तद्भव) words: These are the words that might have been derived from Sanskrit or the Prakrits, but have undergone minor or major phonetic and spelling changes as they appear in modern Hindi.
*Deshaj (देशज) words: These are words of local origin.

Similarly, Urdu treats its own vocabulary, borrowed directly from Persian and Arabic, as a separate category for morphological purposes.

Hindi from which most of the Persian, Arabic and English words have been ousted and replaced by tatsam words is called Shuddha Hindi (pure Hindi). Chiefly, the proponents of the so-called Hindutva ("Hindu-ness") are vociferous supporters of Shuddha Hindi.

Excessive use of tatsam words sometimes creates problems for most native speakers. Strictly speaking, the tatsam words are words of Sanskrit and not of Hindi—thus they have complicated consonantal clusters which are not linguistically valid in Hindi. The educated middle class population of India can pronounce these words with ease, but people of rural backgrounds have much difficulty in pronouncing them. Similarly, vocabulary borrowed from Persian and Arabic also brings in its own consonantal clusters and "foreign" sounds, which may again cause difficulty in speaking them.

Sociolinguistics of Hindi

Variants

Sociolinguists^{http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hin} have traditionally given what they call as four major variants or styles (शैली) of Hindi, viz.,
*High Hindi, the standardized Hindi (based on the Khariboli dialect), written in devanagari script, which contains numerous Sanskrit loanwords, including those introduced more recently to enrich the technical and poetical vocabulary or to replace words of Perseo-Arabic origin. Traditionally, this is the register spoken by the urban Hindu population of north India and is the form of Hindi taught in Indian schools and used in television news and newspapers. Today, High Hindi with many Persian, Arabic and English loanwords is the spoken form of this language in much of the north India, and is used in Hindi films, drama and television serials.
*Dakhini, spoken in the Deccan plateau region in and around Hyderabad, similar to but with fewer words derived from Perso-Arabic in its vocabulary.
*Rekhta, a form of used in poetry.
*', a variant of Hindi (and also based on the Khariboli dialect), but written in Perso-Arabic script. It utilizes a more extensive Persian and Arabic vocabulary and fewer Sanskrit loanwords, especially in its formal register. Before the Partition of India, 's linguistic area was similar to that of High Hindi, but it was more commonly spoken as a mother tongue by Muslims and was identified as a cultural expression of Islam in north India.

Additionally, Hindustani is generally coined for the neutral style that is in-between High Hindi and Urdu and used in common speech.

Dialects

Hindi in the broad sense (formerly referred to as "Hindustani"; now often referred to as "Hindi-Urdu") is a dialect continuum without clear boundaries. For example, both Nepali and Panjabi are sometimes considered to be Hindi (based on the high level of mutual intelligibility for Panjabi and Hindi especially), though they are more often considered to be separate languages. Hindi is often divided into Western Hindi and Eastern Hindi, and these are further divided. Following is a list of principal Hindi dialects; many linguists regard only the dialects under Eastern and Western Hindi as proper Hindi dialects, and the rest as separate languages or sub-languages. The following listing is taken from Tiwari (1966 2004); even he notes that the classification of the dialects under various branches and their classification as a dialect of Hindi or as an independent language depends upon the perception of the linguist.

Hindi region of the Indian subcontinent

This region includes the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttaranchal and Jharkhand. Some people, such as the Government of India (while taking census) regards all the languages spoken in these states to be dialects of Hindi (barring tribal languages). Tiwari (1966 2004) lists them under five groups:
#Western Hindi (the dialects developed from Shaurseni Apabhramsha):
#*Khadiboli (खड़ीबोली) or Sarhindi or Kauravi, originally spoken in western Uttar Pradesh (the districts of Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut, Ghaziabad, Bijnor, Rampur and Moradabad, and district of Dehradun in Uttaranchal) and the Delhi region; the dialect that forms the basis of modern Standard Hindi. It is understood and/or spoken throughout the Indian subcontinent, from Afghanistan, the borders of Iran, to the borders of Burma, and in the south, it is understood in Sri Lanka. It is the almost the lingua franca of the Indian subcontinent, irrespective of political boundaries or official policies. This dialect, with many Sanskrit loanwords, is used in the Hindi news and radio. This is not a great difference between the dialects of Khariboli and Hindustani.
#*Braj Bhasha (ब्रज भाषा), spoken in south-central Uttar Pradesh, in the districts of Mathura, Agra, Aligarh, Dhaulpur, Mainpuri, Etah, Badaun and Bareilly. It has a rich poetic and literal tradition, especially linked with the Hindu divinity Krishna.
#*Hariyani (हरियाणी), spoken in the state of Haryana, heavily influenced by Punjabi.
#*Bundeli (बुन्देली), the dialect of the districts of Jhansi, Jalaun and Hamirpur in Uttar Pradesh and Gwalior, Bhopal, Sagar, Narsinghpur, Seoni, Hoshangabad, etc. in Madhya Pradesh.
#*Kannauji (कन्नौजी), the dialect of the districts of Etawah, Farrukhabad, Shahjahanpur, Kanpur, Hardoi and Pilibhit in Uttar Pradesh.
#Eastern Hindi (the dialects developed from Ardhamagadhi)
#*Awadhi (अवधी), spoken in central and parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh, in the districts of Allahabad, Fatehpur, Mirzapur, Unnao, Raebareli, Sitapur, Faizabad, Gonda, Basti, Bahraich, Sultanpur, Pratapgarh and Barabanki. The famous Hindu scripture Ramcharitmanas was written by Tulsidas in this dialect.
#*Bagheli (बघेली), spoken in the districts of Rewa, Nagod, Shahdol, Satna, Maihar, etc. in Madhya Pradesh.
#*Chattisgarhi (छत्तिसगढ़ी), spoken mostly in the recently created state of Chhattisgarh
#Rajasthani, mostly spoken in the state of Rajasthan, and also comprised of several notable (sub)dialects:
#*Western Rajasthani or Marwari (मारवाड़ी)
#*Eastern Rajasthani or Jaipuri (जयपुरी)
#*Northern Rajasthani or Mewati (मेवाती)
#*Southern Rajasthani or Malwi (मालवी)
#Pahari (पहाड़ी), the dialects of the Himalayan mountains
#*Eastern Pahari, which includes Nepali, now considered a separate language
#*Central Pahari, which includes Garhwali and Kumauni sub-dialects of the newly created state of Uttaranchal.
#*Western Pahari, which includes the several sub-dialects spoken in Himachal Pradesh state.
#"Bihari" (traditionally thought to be dialects of Hindi, contra linguistic evidence)
#*Bhojpuri (भोजपुरी), which is spoken in eastern Uttar Pradesh (districts of Gorakhpur, Deoria, Mirzapur, Varanasi, Jaunpur, Ghazipur, Ballia), western Bihar (districts of Chhapra, Siwan, Gopalganj and Bhojpur) and a small part of Jharkhand (districts Palamu and Ranchi). Some linguists like Dr. Chatterji consider it so different from the other two Bihari dialects that they prefer keeping it outside the Bihari group.
#*Maithili (मैथिली), spoken in the East Champaran, Muzaffarpur, Munger, Bhagalpur, Darbhanga, Purnia and North Santhal Pargana districts of Bihar.
#*Magahi/Magadhi (मगही / मगधी), spoken in the districts of Gaya, Patna, Munger and Bhagalpur in Bihar state and Palamu, Hazaribagh and Ranchi in Jharkhand state.

Depending upon perceptions, people also include various other dialects under Hindi, such as Nimari, Baiswari, Vajjika, Angika, etc.

Non-Hindi regions in the Indian subcontinent
*Bambaiya Hindi, the dialect of the city of Bombay (Mumbai); it is based on Khariboli dialect, but heavily influenced by Marathi and Gujarati. Technically it is a pidgin, i.e., neither it is a mother language of any people nor is it used in formal settings by the educated and upper social strata. However, it is often used in the movies of Hindi cinema (Bollywood), where it often gives a comical effect on the movie characters.
*Dakhini, as discussed above.
*Kalkatiya Hindi, another Khariboli-based pidgin spoken in the city of Calcutta (Kolkata), Shillong, etc., heavily influenced by Bhojpuri and Bengali.

Outside the Indian subcontinent
*Tadj-Uzbeki, a term coined by Tiwari (1966 2004), for the dialect spoken by Indian immigrants from 13th century onwards in the border region of Tadjikistan and Uzbekistan (towns of Hisar, Shehr-e-nau, Regar, Surchi, etc). It seems to be based on the Braj, Hariyani and Rajasthani dialects, and is of course highly influenced by Uzbek, Tadjik and Russian languages.
*Mauritian Hindi, spoken in Mauritius, based on Bhojpuri and influenced by French.
*Sarnami, a form of Bhojpuri with Awadhi influence spoken by Surinamers of Indian descent
*Fiji Hindi, a form of Awadhi spoken by Fijians of Indian descent
*Trinidad Hindi, based on Bhojpuri, and spoken in Trinidad and Tobago by people of Indian descent
*South African Hindi, based on Bhojpuri, and spoken in South Africa by people of Indian descent.

Hindi and

The term Urdu arose in 1645. Until then, and even after 1645, the term Hindi (literally meaning the language of Hind, meaning India) was used in a general sense for the dialects of North West India.

There are two fundamental distinctions between Standard and Standard Hindi that lead to their being recognised as distinct languages:
*the source of borrowed vocabulary (Persian/Arabic for and Sanskrit for Hindi); and
*the script used to write them in (for , an adaptation of the Perso-Arabic alphabet written in Nasta'liq style; for Hindi, an adaptation of the Devanagari script).

Colloquially and linguistically, the distinction between the and Hindi is nearly meaningless. This is true over much of the northern half of the Indian subcontinent, wherever neither learned vocabulary nor is writing used. Outside the Delhi dialect area, the term "Hindi" may be used in reference to the local dialect, which may be very different from both Hindi and .

The word Hindi has many different uses; confusion of these is one of the primary causes of debate about the identity of . These uses include:
#standardized Hindi as taught in schools throughout India,
#formal or official Hindi advocated by Purushottam Das Tandon and as instituted by the post-independence Indian government, heavily influenced by Sanskrit,
#the vernacular nonstandard dialects of Hindustani/Hindi-Urdu as spoken throughout much of India and Pakistan, as discussed above,
#the neutralized form of the language used in popular television and films, or
#the more formal neutralized form of the language used in broadcast and print news reports.

The rubric "Hindi" is often used as a catch-all for those idioms in the North Indian dialect continuum that are not recognized as languages separate from the language of the Delhi region. Panjabi, Bihari, and Chhatisgarhi, while sometimes recognised as being distinct languages, are often considered dialects of Hindi. Many other local idioms, such as the Bhili languages, which do not have a distinct identity defined by an established literary tradition, are almost always considered dialects of Hindi. In other words, the boundaries of "Hindi" have little to do with mutual intelligibility, and instead depend on social perceptions of what constitutes a language.

The other use of the word "Hindi" is in reference to Standard Hindi, the Khari boli register of the Delhi dialect of Hindi (generally called Hindustani) with its direct loanwords from Sanskrit. Standard is also a standardized form of Hindustani. Such a state of affairs, with two standardized forms of what is essentially one language, is known as a diasystem.

Urdu was earlier called Zabān-e-Urdū-e-Mu’allah, lit., the "Graceful Language of the Camp". Earlier, terms Hindi and Urdu were used interchangeably even by Urdu poets like Mir and Mirza Ghalib of the early 19th century (rather, the terms Hindvi/Hindi was used more often). Tiwari (1966 2004) has also accused the then British colonial government of India (after the establishment of Fort William college in Kolkata, around 1800) of deliberately associating the term Hindi for the Sanskritized form used by the Hindus, and the term Urdu for the Perso-Arabicized form used by the Muslims, in order to divide and rule the native Indians. To a great extent, they were successful with it, and by 1850, Hindi and Urdu were no longer used for the same language. Other linguists such as Sir G. A. Grierson (1903) have also claimed that Urdu is simply a dialect or style of Western Hindi. Before the Partition of India, Delhi, Lucknow, Aligarh and Hyderabad used to be the four literary centers of Urdu — none of which lie in present Pakistan.

The colloquial language spoken by the people of Delhi is indistinguishable by ear, whether it is called Hindi or by its speakers. The only important distinction at this level is in the script: if written in the Perso-Arabic script, the language is generally considered to be , and if written in devanagari it is generally considered to be Hindi. However, since independence the formal registers used in education and the media have become increasingly divergent in their vocabulary. Where there is no colloquial word for a concept, Standard Urdu uses Perso-Arabic vocabulary, while Standard Hindi uses Sanskrit vocabulary. This results in the official languages being heavily Sanskritized or Persianized, and nearly unintelligible to speakers educated in the other standard (as far as the formal vocabulary is concerned).

These two standardized registers of Hindustani have become so entrenched as separate languages that many extreme-nationalists, both Hindu and Muslim, claim that Hindi and have always been separate languages. The tensions reached a peak in the Hindi-Urdu controversy in 1867 in the then United Provinces during the British Raj. However, there were and are unifying forces as well. For example, it is said that Indian Bollywood films are made in "Hindi", but the language used in most of them is the same as that of speakers in Pakistan. The dialogue is frequently developed in English and later translated to an intentionally neutral Hindustani which can be easily understood by speakers of most North Indian languages, both in India itself and in Pakistan.

Phonology

There are approximately 11 vowels and 35 consonants in Standard Hindī. They are shown below:

Vowels

right

The vowels of Hindi with their word-initial devanagari symbol, diacritical mark with the consonant प (p), pronunciation (of the vowel alone and the vowel following ) in IPA, equivalent in IAST and (approximate) equivalents in British English are listed below:

Hinglish

Hinglish, a portmanteau of the words Hindi and English, is the arbitrary usage of Hindi and English, combining both, in one sentence. This is more commonly seen in urban and semi-urban centers of population, but is slowly spreading its root into rural and remote areas via television and word of mouth, slowly achieving vernacular status. Many speakers do not realize that they are incorporating English words into Hindi sentences or Hindi words into English sentences.

This highly popular mixing of both the languages in most parts of northern and central India has grown from the fact that English is a popular language of choice amongst the urbane youth who finds itself comfortable in its lexicon. It is already the medium for imparting education in many schools across the nation. The advent of cable television and its pervasive growth has seen the masses exposed to a wide variety of programming from across the world.

Another factor contributing to the spread of Hinglish is the popularity of Bollywood films.

Examples

* "Dad, time kya hua hai?" (Dad, what is the time right now?).
* "I have hazaar things on my mind right now." (I have thousands of things on my mind right now.)

Also see Hinglish

See also

*The list of Hindi words and list of words of Hindi origin at Wiktionary, the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project
* Hindi literature
* Hindustānī (Hindī-Urdū) word etymology
* Complex Text Layout languages
* Where is Hindi on the Internet?
* Languages of India
* List of national languages of India
* List of Indian languages by total speakers
* History of Hindi: a detailed chronology
* Technical English words in Hindi

Notes

References

*International Phonetic Association (1999) Handbook of the International Phonetic Association ISBN 0-521-63751-1
*Bhatia, Tej K. Colloquial Hindi: The Complete Course for Beginners. London, UK & New York, NY: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0415110874 (Book), 0415110882 (Cassettes), 0415110890 (Book & Cassette Course)
*Grierson, G. A. Linguistic Survey of India Vol I-XI, Calcutta, 1928, ISBN 8185395276
*Hock, Hans H. (1991), Principles of Historical Linguistics, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin–New York, ISBN 3110129620
*Shapiro, Michael C. Hindi. Facts about the world's languages: An encyclopedia of the world's major languages, past and present. Ed. Jane Garry, and Carl Rubino: New England Publishing Associates, 2001.
*Snell, Rupert Teach yourself Hindi: A complete guide for beginners. Lincolnwood, IL : NTC Publishing Group, 1992. ISBN 0844238635
*Taj, Afroz (2002) A door into Hindi . Retrieved November 8, 2005.
*Tiwari, Bholanath (1966 2004) हिन्दी भाषा (Hindī Bhāshā), Kitāb Mahal, Allahabad, ISBN 81-225-0017-X.

Further reading

*Bhatia, Tej K A History of the Hindi Grammatical Tradition. Leiden, Nehterlands & New York, NY : E.J. Brill, 1987. ISBN 9004079246

External links

*A compilation of Tools and Techniques for Hindi Computing
* Request free Hindi Fonts and Devanagari Tools CD from Indian Government
*A short introduction to Hindi grammar
*Hindi Wiktionary
* History and Evolution of Hindi Language Extended resource compiled by Abhinav Bhatele, with phonological, morphological, and lexical development in Hindi, with many period extracts. (Accessed Mar 16, 2006).
*Ethnologue on Hindi
*Hindi--Pashtu-English Word list: Comparative list of 210 words in English, Hindi/, and Pashtu/Pashto/Pukhtu
*Useful Hindi phrases in English and other Indian languages.
*Wordanywhere.com Hindi/Telugu/English Dictionary, useful phrases and translation forums
*Generator for Hindi typographical filler text
*Hindi Language Resources
*Hindi documents and dictionary
* A compilation of popular Hindi Poetry at geeta-kavita.com
*International Institute of Information Technologies IIIT , online and downloadable dictionaries cross referenced in English for Hindi, Marathi, Punjabi, Bengali, Kannada, Telugu languages. Includes Classical Hindi Literature, writings of Meera, Suradas, Tulasidas, Premchand, Rahim et cetera.
*Online Itrans to generate Hindi/Devanagari output.
*Hindi Translation
*Official Unicode Chart for Hindi (PDF)
*writeKA English-to-Hindi Online Transliterator
*Website of Microsoft to Provide Solutions for Hindi Language on net
*Windows Indic Script Support
*How to enable Indic Language Support at OS level
*Microsoft hindi IME keyboard हिन्दी कीबोर्ड
*Romanized to Unicode Hindi transliterator
*Hindi English Dictionary from Webster's Online Dictionary - the Rosetta Edition
*Hindi To English Talktive Dictioanry
*Virtual Hindi Keyboard Freeware
*The Constitution of India of 1950 The Constitution of India of 1950, which contains Articles about the Language of the Union (PART XVII - Chapter I)
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